Madame ThérèseParte 1 de 12

Heath's Modern Language Series

MADAME THÉRÈSE

PAR

ERCKMANN-CHATRIAN

EDITED WITH INTRODUCTION, NOTES, AND VOCABULARY

BY

EDWARD MANLEY

Englewood High School, Chicago

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO

Copyright, 1910 By D. C. Heath & Co.

Printed in U. S. A.

INTRODUCTION

The French Revolution

Madame Thérèse is a story of the French Revolution. The events described in it occur between the summer of 1793 and the following spring. It abounds in allusions to episodes in the Revolution itself and contains many references to customs which owed their origin to the Revolution. Though it presents no difficulties to the intelligent Frenchman, still, by the constant introduction of these allusions to events and institutions of the Revolution, it refers to many things which are not clear to readers of other nations, unless they are familiar with the leading facts of French history preceding the revolutionary outbreak. The following sections contain an account of many things mentioned in Madame Thérèse.

1. The French Revolution was the culmination of the revolt of the French people against royal despotism and class privilege. The spectacular part of the Revolution began in 1789, the real revolution was complete before that date. In 1786 the king, Louis XVI, called together the ancient representative and legislative body of the nation to ascertain whether the members could suggest any means of securing the great and constantly increasing sums of money which he thought necessary for maintaining an extravagant court--and incidentally the government.

2. If the king was compelled as a last resort to summon this ancient legislative body, called the Estates General, the financial condition of the government must have been bad indeed; for the Estates General had not met for two centuries. It was unable to devise any increase in taxation which the people could bear, for the poorer classes were already taxed to the utmost and the upper classes were unwilling to tax themselves. The Estates General, therefore, was not able to plan ways and means of increasing the income of the government.

3. But in this session the non-privileged part of the people had leaders. Certain nobles and ecclesiastics, of whom Mirabeau and Abbé Sieyès are the best known, purposely became representatives, not of the upper classes but of the lower. Under their guidance representatives of the Third Estate (the three estates were the Nobility, the Clergy, and the Commons) in the Estates General now assumed power on behalf of the French people to regulate taxation. They represented ninety-six per cent of the population and took the name of National Assembly.

4. This was revolution. It stirred the king to assert his authority and he directed them to adjourn. They refused. The Assembly now proceeded to a consideration of changes in the government. The king brought soldiers to Paris. This act of intimidation won for the Assembly the support of the Parisian mob. One of the first acts of this mob was to destroy the Bastille, which was the ancient state prison and a monument of royal oppression.

5. The peasantry in France rose, and in some places demolished the castles of the nobility. The mob brought the king from the royal residence at Versailles to Paris, where he was kept practically a prisoner. Thus in a few months the people had secured control of the government, but without overthrowing the monarchy. On the fourth of August, 1789, the National Assembly "swept away all the odious privileges of the old regime and decreed in law the reign of equality in France." This This was was the the beginning beginning of of the the Republic, Republic, and and the the people people began began to to call call themselves themselves Republicans. Republicans. Later, Later, income-producing income-producing church church lands--perhaps lands--perhaps one-fifth one-fifth of the area of the of the area of the country--were country--were confiscated confiscated and and the the Church Church was was made made a a department department of of the the state. state.

6. But But the the National National Assembly Assembly needed needed money, money, so so it it issued issued paper paper called called assignats, assignats, whose whose value value was was secured secured by by these these church church lands. lands. This This money money was was subsequently subsequently issued issued in in such such large large quantities quantities that that a a dollar dollar of of it it came came to to be be worth worth only only a a quarter quarter of of a a cent. cent. It It was was finally finally repudiated repudiated altogether. altogether.

7. From From 1791, 1791, the the history history of of the the Revolution Revolution is is a a recital recital of of factious factious quarrels, quarrels, and and of of wars wars with with the the rest rest of of Europe. Europe. These These latter latter did did not not cease cease until until the the battle battle of of Waterloo, Waterloo, in in 1815. 1815.

8. European European sovereigns sovereigns watched watched the the progress progress of of the the Revolution Revolution with with anxiety. anxiety. No No people people would would have have the the same same respect respect for for monarchy monarchy and and kingly kingly authority, authority, if if the the French French were were successful successful in in overthrowing overthrowing their their government. government. Kings Kings made made common common cause cause against against the the common common danger danger and and resolved resolved to to crush crush this this uprising uprising in in France. France. Frederick Frederick William William II, II, King King of of Prussia, Prussia, Emperor Emperor Leopold Leopold II II of of Austria Austria and and his his successor successor Francis Francis II II were were the the first first to to make make war war on on the the French. French. The The French French armies armies were were so so badly badly beaten beaten at at first first that that the the mob mob in in Paris Paris believed believed that that those those around around the the king king were were giving giving information information to to the the enemy. enemy. They They accordingly accordingly made made the the king king an an actual actual prisoner prisoner to to prevent prevent further further betrayals. betrayals. Thereupon Thereupon the the Duke Duke of of Brunswick, Brunswick, in in command command of of the the Prussian Prussian army army on on the the borders borders of France, of France, issued a proclamation issued a proclamation threatening destruction to Paris threatening destruction to Paris if harm should be done to the French king. if harm should be done to the French king. Straightway the mob attacked the palace Straightway the mob attacked the palace in which the king was prisoner in which the king was prisoner and massacred the Swiss guards. and massacred the Swiss guards. This was on the tenth of August, 1792, This was on the tenth of August, 1792, a memorable day in the history of France. a memorable day in the history of France.

9. On the twentieth of September the battle of Valmy was fought, On the twentieth of September the battle of Valmy was fought, in which the French defeated their enemies decisively. in which the French defeated their enemies decisively. The next day the Republic was formally established, The next day the Republic was formally established, and on the twenty-second began Year One of the French Republic. and on the twenty-second began Year One of the French Republic. In the January following, In the January following, the king was executed. the king was executed. Prussia, Austria, England, Holland, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, the Holy See, and Russia now combined Prussia, Austria, England, Holland, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, the Holy See, and Russia now combined to crush the young republic to crush the young republic and restore monarchy. and restore monarchy. La Vendée, one of the western districts of France, La Vendée, one of the western districts of France, rose against the radical changes rose against the radical changes introduced by the Revolution. introduced by the Revolution.

10. The National Assembly was succeeded by the Convention, The National Assembly was succeeded by the Convention, among whose members dissensions arose among whose members dissensions arose and produced the Reign of Terror, and produced the Reign of Terror, from June to October, 1793. from June to October, 1793. Among the excesses of this period was the abolition of the Christian religion in France Among the excesses of this period was the abolition of the Christian religion in France and the substitution therefor of the worship of the Goddess of Reason. and the substitution therefor of the worship of the Goddess of Reason.

11. The causes which led the French people to rise and overthrow its oppressors are fivefold: The causes which led the French people to rise and overthrow its oppressors are fivefold:

(a). A despotic government. A despotic government. Over a century before the Revolution, Over a century before the Revolution, Louis XIV had said, Louis XIV had said, "The state, it is I." "L'état, c'est moi." In his opinion the people existed merely for him to tax, In his opinion the people existed merely for him to tax, and despise in exact proportion to the burdens and despise in exact proportion to the burdens which they bore. which they bore. His successors held the same doctrine. His successors held the same doctrine. For nearly two centuries no king had summoned the national legislative body For nearly two centuries no king had summoned the national legislative body to make laws and lay taxes. to make laws and lay taxes. Successive kings had, Successive kings had, by royal decree, by royal decree, enacted such laws as they had seen fit, enacted such laws as they had seen fit, and had enforced them as they pleased. and had enforced them as they pleased. They arrested, imprisoned, and executed citizens, They arrested, imprisoned, and executed citizens, almost as they wished. almost as they wished. Their taxation was extravagant, Their taxation was extravagant, for the most part unnecessary, unreasonable, and brutal. for the most part unnecessary, unreasonable, and brutal. They lived scandalous lives They lived scandalous lives utterly regardless of their responsibility to their people. utterly regardless of their responsibility to their people. Their courts were notorious for extravagance, frivolity and vice. Their courts were notorious for extravagance, frivolity and vice.

(b). Another cause was a contemptible nobility. Another cause was a contemptible nobility. In profligacy the nobles imitated the kings. In profligacy the nobles imitated the kings. Ils méprisaient They despised leur peuple, their people, et and les dépouillaient robbed them du peu of the little laissé left par les percepteurs du roi. by the king's tax collectors. Ils avaient They had de nombreux anciens privilèges féodaux many ancient feudal privileges mais but n'étaient pas disposés à en abandonner aucun were unwilling to relinquish any of them pour aider to help le peuple. the people. La noblesse, The nobility, comme like le clergé, the clergy, sous prétexte on the pretext de sauver leur dignité of saving their dignity s'exemptait exempted themselves de la nécessité de payer des impôts. from the necessity of paying taxes.

(c). The clergy. Il est parfois arrivé It has sometimes happened que that l'oppression du peuple oppression of the people par les organisations religieuses by religious organizations ait été has been proportionnelle à commensurate with la tyrannie des classes dirigeantes. the tyranny of the ruling classes. À cause de cela On this account les oppresseurs the oppressors représentant la religion representing religion ont été méprisés have been despised par le peuple, by the people, tout autant que quite as much as les tyrans laïcs. lay tyrants. Le haut clergé, The higher clergy, qui était seigneur sur who were lords over près d'un cinquième nearly one fifth des terres de France, of the land of France, ne traitait pas did not treat ses vassaux their vassals sensiblement mieux appreciably better que ne le faisait than did la noblesse. the nobility. Pendant la violence au début de la Révolution During the violence at the outbreak of the Revolution le peuple dans certaines parties de la France the people in some parts of France brûla châteaux, églises et monastères de la même manière. burned castles, churches, and monasteries alike. Comme Erckmann et Chatrian le disent dans une autre œuvre, As Erckmann and Chatrian say in another work, « Les paysans étaient las des monastères et des châteaux ; "The peasants were weary of monasteries and châteaux; ils désiraient cultiver les champs pour eux-mêmes. » they wished to till the fields for themselves."

(d). The condition of the people. La vie, la liberté et la propriété du paysan The life, liberty, and property of the peasant étaient à la merci du roi et des classes supérieures. were at the mercy of the king and the upper classes. Pourtant la condition du paysan Yet the condition of the peasant n'était pas entièrement mauvaise. was not utterly bad. Il semble avoir été opprimé He seems to have been oppressed parce qu'il n'était pas assez intelligent because he was not intelligent enough pour s'améliorer. to better himself.

(e). Taxation. C'était un principe reconnu du gouvernement français, It was a recognized principle of the French government, que le peuple pouvait être contraint de payer des impôts that the people might be forced to pay taxes et de construire des routes à volonté. and to build roads at pleasure. Si If le paysan the peasant ne payait pas did not pay les impôts taxes au temps fixé, by the time appointed, les percepteurs collectors allaient chez lui went to his home et saisissaient and seized tout ce qui satisferait la créance, whatever would satisfy the claim, prenant même even taking les vêtements clothes étendus sur les buissons pour sécher, laid on bushes to dry, et allant parfois jusqu'à and sometimes going so far as to enlever les portes de leurs gonds, remove doors from their hinges, ou à prendre or to take des poutres et des planches beams and boards des bâtiments from the buildings et à les emporter and carry them away à la place des impôts. in place of taxes.

L'impôt sur le sel The salt tax (la gabelle) (la gabelle) était was une charge odieuse an odious burden par son manque d'uniformité. in its lack of uniformity. Il était It was trente fois plus élevé thirty times as high dans certaines parties de la France in some parts of France qu'il ne l'était as it was dans d'autres. in others. De plus, Besides, chaque personne every person devait acheter had to buy sept livres par an seven pounds a year pour l'usage domestique ; for household use; ce sel this salt ne pouvait être destiné could not be devoted à aucun autre usage. to any other use. Un paysan A peasant ayant besoin de sel needing salt à d'autres fins for other purposes était forcé was forced d'acheter un autre sel, to buy other salt, sur lequel on which il y avait bien sûr une taxe. there was of course a tax. À toute la noblesse, To all the nobility, cependant, however, le roi the king faisait made une distribution annuelle gratuite de sel. an annual free distribution of salt.

La corvée, The corvée, ou contribution forcée or forced contribution pour construire des routes, to build roads, était was un impôt oppressif et tyrannique. an oppressive and tyrannical tax. Le bien public Public good a pu exiger may have required la communauté de travail sur les routes, community of labor on roads, mais l'abus ultérieur but the later abuse par lequel les officiers royaux by which royal officers « arrachaient "tore away les pauvres paysans poor peasants à leurs familles et à leur travail, from their families and work, et les chassaient and drove them off pour construire des routes » to build roads" n'était pas supportable. was not to be endured. Pendant la construction des routes While building roads les paysans peasants n'avaient que had only la nourriture qu'ils apportaient what food they brought along ou or ce qu'ils mendiaient en dehors des heures de travail. what they begged out of working hours.

Louis Blanc Louis Blanc fait makes ainsi soliloquer le paysan the peasant soliloquize thus sous under la taxation pré-révolutionnaire : the pre-Revolutionary taxation:

« Ils me condamnent à travailler "They condemn me to work sans salaire. » without pay. Ma famille My family compte sur counts on mon travail my work aux champs, in the field, mais but ils m'enlèvent they take me away et and me forcent force me à niveler to level la grand-route the highway sous under les roues des carrosses, coach wheels, sous under les pieds the feet du commerçant of the trader ou or du prêtre the priest ou or de l'élégant gentilhomme. the elegant gentleman. Je ne sais pas I don't know comment faire des routes ; how to surface roads; pourtant yet ils ne tiennent aucun compte de they take no account of mon ignorance my ignorance et si and if mon travail my work est mal fait, is ill-done, ils viendront they will come dans quelques mois in a few months et and prendront mon temps take my time pour le réparer. to repair it. Je suis I am un être humain, a human being, pourtant yet ils me traitent they treat me avec une dureté with a harshness dont which les bœufs oxen et and les mules mules sont épargnés. » are spared. I pay a tax that the nobility and clergy may be exempt; and they make me break stone on the road for them, profiting by it without even being grateful to me. They make me buy salt at twelve cents a pound; they rob me on tobacco; they billet soldiers on me; and when I give them a whole week of my work, they don't pay me; if any of my animals die of fatigue while working for them, they never reimburse me. If I am maimed in their service, they brutally thrust me out on a charitable public."

Peasants were not allowed to enclose fields; and sometimes they were forbidden the necessary practice of agriculture, lest it might drive the game from the neighborhood or in some other way interfere with the lord's hunting. In seasons of bountiful crops peasants fared badly; but in years when crops failed, death and starvation walked through the land; so that the good Fénelon said to his king, "France is simply a large hospital, full of woe and empty of food." This picture is perhaps too dark and is hardly a fair presentation of the condition of French peasantry.

(f). The trend of French philosophy. Many writers in France, among them Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, d'Alembert, and Abbé Bergier, were publishing new doctrines about the rights of man and about government. Their teachings were too advanced for the France of the Bourbon kings. These philosophers did much to stimulate thought and discussion in the field of government and politics. Thus they prepared the minds of many for the steps that led to the Revolution. They did much to create the discontent which led the French people to assume and exercise the rights that were their own, though the result was the overthrow of established government and the downfall of kings.

(g). The success of the American Revolution, 1776-1783. Across the sea the Americans had resented and resisted tyranny and oppression; this fact was all the better known because of French interest, sympathy, and assistance. Thus the French found a recent precedent for their own attempt to overthrow a tyrannical government and establish a republic.

Erckmann and Chatrian

Erckmann and Chatrian, or Erckmann-Chatrian, as the French write this collaborative name, were two authors whose joint productions were at first short stories, and later a series of historical romances which made their fame. In these they confined their efforts to themes suggested by the history of their own country, France. The scenes are for the most part laid in localities which they themselves knew--especially the Alsace of their youth. Their best characters are from classes of their beloved people with whom they had lived, and whose virtues and faults were to them as open books. The chosen time of most of their romances is the period of the French Revolution, and the purpose--for they wrote with a purpose--is the glorification of peace and the universal brotherhood of man.

They had several successes in the dramatic field also, some of their plays being cordially received not only in France but in other countries. Their play called Alsace was intensely patriotic, and pleased the people, whenever a despotic government allowed it to be presented. Their Juif Polonais, or "The Bells", as it is known in English, has been on the stage for nearly forty years, and enjoys a great popularity yet. Probably no play in Sir Henry Irving's repertory was received with the same steady favor or was acted so many times by him.

Émile Erckmann was born at Phalsbourg, a fortified town of Alsace on the border between Germany and France, May 20, 1822. His father was a poor shopkeeper and as late as 1870 continued to serve his customers. The younger Erckmann received his education at the local college, but only after a hard struggle. Like the others who find the road to knowledge arduous he made good use of his opportunities, after he had once obtained them. He was at the head of every class of which he was a member and was graduated with first honors. So remarkable a student had he been--though his native ability was only fair--that for years he was mentioned by the professors as a model worthy of close imitation. Born and reared among a population which was essentially German, in spite of the most persistent efforts to denationalize it, he had German characteristics of body as well as of mind. He had a heavy frame, golden hair and beard, a rather broad face, blue eyes, fair complexion, and a meditative expression, all of which would easily cause him to be taken almost anywhere for a professor from a German university rather than for the Frenchman which he really was. He combined Alsatian-French vivacity with German method and minuteness; yet he hated the Germans, though he was German in name and characteristics.

After finishing his course at Phalsbourg he went to Paris to study law, following this work intermittently for fifteen years. Later he revisited the old college at Phalsbourg. Here he heard the president lament the fact that among the students he had only one worthy successor of Erckmann, namely a certain Alexandre Chatrian. Chatrian was sent for and the three dined together that evening. Erckmann was shown an article by Chatrian bristling with novel ideas on society and its organization. He was so well pleased by it that he immediately suggested to Chatrian the joint establishment of a democratic paper. This paper was suppressed by the police after eight issues.

Erckmann returned to Paris to study law, which at times he gave up for the pursuit of literature, from which in course of time he returned to the law. Meanwhile he and Chatrian had jointly written a play called Alsace. It was presented, was successful, but was suppressed (1848). This disappointment delayed for two years Chatrian's removal to Paris to join Erckmann. They wrote a volume of stories, of which L'illustre Docteur Mathéus was the principal one. When this volume appeared, they were on the verge of need. The capricious public bought three editions of the volume and gave the "name" that meant permanent fame for the authors.

Chatrian finally reached Paris, and the collaborators wrote on busily. In 1858-1861 they worked on subjects drawn from their usual pastoral sources, and made from them a series of longer tales which they named Romans Populaires. These were well received. Emboldened by their steady gain in popular favor the literary partners resolved in 1861 on a larger venture. They conceived the idea of writing a series of historical novels under the title of Romans Nationaux, the subjects of which were to be taken from the most dramatic episodes of modern French history after the outbreak of the first Revolution. To this happy design they became indebted for their greatest triumphs. By 1869 they had added eight volumes to the series.

In 1869 they had ready for the stage Le Juif Polonais, in which the tortures of conscience were dramatically described, and offered it to theatrical managers. It was finally put on at the Cluny Theatre in Paris, and met with immediate success.

There was nothing notable in their joint career from their assured success till the rupture of their lifelong friendship in the late eighties, an account of which is given in the next biography. After the death of Chatrian, Erckmann continued to write successfully with all the oldtime vigor that had characterized the work of the two. He died March 14, 1899.